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Biography of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Philosopher and Mathematician

Biography of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, Philosopher and Mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was a prominent German philosopher and mathematician. Though Leibniz was a polymath who contributed many works to many different fields, he is best known for his contributions to math, in which he invented differential and integral calculus independently of Sir Isaac Newton. In philosophy, Leibniz is known for his contributions on a wide range of subjects, including â€Å"optimism†- the idea that the current world is the best of all possible worlds, and was created by a freely thinking God who chose this for a good reason. Fast Facts: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Known For: Philosopher and mathematician known for a number of important contributions to mathematics and philosophy, such as the modern binary system, a widely used calculus notation, and the idea that everything exists for a reason.Born: July 1, 1646 in Leipzig, GermanyDied: November 14, 1716 in Hanover, GermanyParents: Friedrich Leibniz and Catharina SchmuckEducation: Leipzig University, University of Altdorf, University of Jena Early Life and Career Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was born in Leipzig, Germany on July 1, 1646 to Friedrich Leibniz, a professor of moral philosophy, and Catharina Schmuck, whose father was a law professor. Though Leibniz attended elementary school, he was mostly self-taught from the books in his father’s library (who had died in 1652 when Leibniz was six). While young, Leibniz immersed himself in history, poetry, math, and other subjects, gaining knowledge in many different fields. In 1661, Leibniz, who was 14, began studying law at the University of Leipzig and was exposed to the works of thinkers such as Renà © Descartes, Galileo, and Francis Bacon. While there, Leibniz also attended summer school at the University of Jena, where he studied mathematics. In 1666, he finished his law studies and applied to become a doctorate student in law at Leipzig. Because of his young age, however, he was refused the degree. This caused Leibniz to leave the University of Leipzig and earn the degree the following year at the University of Altdorf, whose faculty were so impressed with Leibniz that they invited him to become a professor despite his youth. Leibniz, however, declined and opted instead to pursue a career in public service. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. United States public domain Leibniz’s Tenure in Frankfurt and Mainz, 1667-1672 In 1667, Leibniz entered the service of the Elector of Mainz, who tasked him to help revise the Corpus Juris- or body of laws- of the electorate. During this time, Leibniz also worked to reconcile Catholic and Protestant parties and encouraged Christian European countries to work together to conquer non-Christian lands, instead of waging war on each other. For example, if France left Germany alone, then Germany could help France in conquering Egypt. Leibniz’s action was inspired by France’s king Louis XIV, who seized some German towns in Alsace-Lorraine in 1670. (This â€Å"Egyptian Plan† would be ultimately passed on, although Napoleon unwittingly used a similar plan over a century later.) Paris, 1672-1676 In 1672, Leibniz went to Paris to discuss these ideas more, staying there until 1676. While at Paris, he met a number of mathematicians like Christiaan Huygens, who made many discoveries in physics, mathematics, astronomy, and horology. Leibniz’s interest in mathematics has been credited to this period of travel. He quickly advanced in the subject, figuring out the core of some of his ideas on calculus, physics, and philosophy. Indeed, in 1675 Leibniz figured out the foundations of integral and differential calculus independently from Sir Isaac Newton. In 1673, Leibniz also made a diplomatic trip to London, where he showed a calculating machine that he had developed called the Stepped Reckoner, which could add, subtract, multiply, and divide. In London, he also became a fellow of the Royal Society, an honor awarded to individuals who have made substantial contributions to science or math. Hanover, 1676-1716 In 1676, upon the death of the Elector of Mainz, Leibniz moved to Hanover, Germany, and was placed in charge of the library of the Elector of Hanover. It Hanover- the place that would serve as his residence for the rest of his life- Leibniz wore many hats. For instance, he served as a mining engineer, an advisor, and a diplomat. As a diplomat, he continued to push for the reconciliation of the Catholic and Lutheran churches in Germany by writing papers that would resolve the views of both Protestants and Catholics. The last part of Leibniz’s life was plagued by controversy- with the most notable being in 1708, when Leibniz was accused of plagiarizing Newton’s calculus despite having developed the math independently. Leibniz died in Hanover on November 14, 1716. He was 70 years old. Leibniz never married, and his funeral was only attended by his personal secretary. Legacy Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz University of Hannover, Germany. Moment Editorial / Getty Images Leibniz was considered a great polymath and he made many important contributions to philosophy, physics, law, politics, theology, math, psychology, and other fields. He may be most well known, however, for some of his contributions to math and philosophy. When Leibniz died, he had written between 200,000 to 300,000 pages and more than 15,000 letters of correspondence to other intellectuals and important politicians- including many notable scientists and philosophers, two German emperors, and Tsar Peter the Great. Contributions to Math Modern Binary System Leibniz invented the modern binary system, which uses the symbols 0 and 1 to represent numbers and logical statements. The modern binary system is integral to the functioning and operation of computers, even though Leibniz discovered this system a few centuries prior to the invention of the first modern computer. It should be noted, however, that Leibniz did not discover binary numbers themselves. Binary numbers were already used, for example, by the ancient Chinese, whose use of binary numbers was acknowledged in Leibniz’s paper that introduced his binary system (â€Å"Explanation of Binary Arithmetic,† which was published in 1703). Calculus Leibniz developed a complete theory of integral and differential calculus independently of Newton, and was the first one to publish on the subject (1684 as opposed to Newton’s 1693), though both thinkers seem to have developed their ideas at the same time. When the Royal Society of London, whose president at the time was Newton, decided who developed calculus first, they gave credit for the discovery of calculus to Newton, while credit for the publication on calculus went to Leibniz. Leibniz was also accused of plagiarizing Newton’s calculus, which left a permanent negative mark on his career. Leibniz’s calculus differed from Newton’s mainly in notation. Interestingly, many students of calculus today have come to prefer Leibniz’s notation. For example, many students today use â€Å"dy/dx† to indicate a derivative of y with respect to x, and an â€Å"S†-like symbol to indicate an integral. Newton, on the other hand, placed a dot over a variable, like á º , to indicate a derivative of y with respect to s, and did not have a consistent notation for integration. Matrices Leibniz also rediscovered a method of arranging linear equations into arrays or matrices, which makes manipulating those equations much easier. A similar method had first been discovered by Chinese mathematicians years earlier, but had fallen into abandonment. A statue of Leibniz at Leipzig University. claudiodivizia / Getty Images. Contributions to Philosophy Monads and Philosophy of Mind In the 17th century, Renà © Descartes put forward the notion of dualism, in which the non-physical mind was separate from the physical body. This sparked the question of how exactly the mind and body are related to one another. In response, some philosophers said that the mind could only be explained in terms of physical matter. Leibniz, on the other hand, believed that the world is made of â€Å"monads,† which are not made of matter. Each monad, in turn, has its own individual identity, as well as its own properties that determine how they are perceived. The monads, furthermore, are arranged by God- who is also a monad- to be together in perfect harmony. This laid down Leibniz’s views on optimism. Optimism Leibniz’s most famous contribution to philosophy may be â€Å"optimism,† the idea that the world we live in- which encompasses everything that exists and has existed- is the â€Å"best of all possible worlds.† The idea is based on the assumption that God is a good and rational being, and has considered many other worlds in addition to this one before choosing this one to come into existence. Leibniz explained evil by stating that it may result in a greater good, even if an individual experiences negative consequences. He further believed that everything existed for a reason. And humans, with their limited viewpoint, cannot see the greater good from their restricted vantage point. Leibniz’s ideas were popularized by the French writer Voltaire, who did not agree with Leibniz that humans are living in the â€Å"best of all possible worlds.† Voltaire’s satirical book Candide ridicules this notion by introducing the character Pangloss, who believes that everything is for the best despite all of the negative things going on in the world. Sources Garber, Daniel. â€Å"Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646–1716).† Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, www.rep.routledge.com/articles/biographical/leibniz-gottfried-wilhelm-1646-1716/v-1.Jolley, Nicholas, editor. The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz. Cambridge University Press, 1995.Mastin, Luke. â€Å"17th Century Mathematics - Leibniz.† The Story of Mathematics, Storyofmathematics.com, 2010, www.storyofmathematics.com/17th_leibniz.html.Tietz, Sarah. â€Å"Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm.† ELS, Oct. 2013.

Exporting and Importing for a Developing Country Essay

Exporting and Importing for a Developing Country - Essay Example It is also the 24th most populous nation with at least 51 million people. The country is a multiethnic society. South Africa is a developing country, according to the standards of the CIA and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (CIA, 2013). The country’s economic position is rapidly advancing, particularly as a result of its robust trade initiatives. South Africa’s trade initiatives include major imports from and exports products to numerous countries across the globe. Some of the country’s most notable imports include motor vehicles and vehicle parts, computers and electronics and refined petroleum products. The import product selected for this paper is refined petroleum products. This selection is based on the fact that South Africa’s importation of refined petroleum products encompasses 7.4% of its entire imports. Petroleum products are vital materials that come from crude oil and are processed in oil refineries. Petroleum is converted into petroleum products that consist of an array of fuels (UN, 2010). Question 2 The Republic of South Africa is based on a constitutional democracy. The government structure encompasses three structures namely; local, provincial and national governments. South Africa is a sovereign and democratic state, which is segmented into nine provinces. Each state has its individual provincial legislature. All segments of government in South Africa derive their powers, as well as functions, from the Constitution of South Africa. The National Assembly is the supreme law-making institution of the Republic of South Africa (CIA, 2013). The National Assembly makes law applicable throughout the country and the same is also true for all legislative policies developed by the Cabinet of the National Government. Although there are sections of executive legislative competence for the National Assembly, it shares its legislative power with the country’s provincial legislatures. The Sout h African parliament consists primarily of two houses, namely, the National Council of Provinces (NCOP) and the National Assembly. The South African National Assembly is elected into office for five years and is made up of no fewer than 350 members and no more than 400 members. Members of these houses are elected in keeping with the country’s electoral system, which centers on a roll of voters who are above the age of 18 years (USTR, 2012). This results in a system characterized by proportional representation. On the other hand, the local government encompasses municipalities whose objectives include the provision of democratic and accountable government for the country’s local communities, promoting socioeconomic development and ensuring equitable provision of services to all communities. The link between the national and local government is the provincial government. South African provincial governments are subject to policies and laws established at the national lev el (CIA, 2013). However, provincial governments have the power to pass their individual policies and laws in the framework so as to suit the specific needs of the provinces. Provincial legislatures are allowed to establish their own constitutions in accordance with the provisions of the South African Constitution. A number of challenges plague the marketing of products in South Africa. Firstly, South Africa is a low yield environment, which means that the traditional income of most South Africans is quite low. This makes investors uneasy

Mothering and Child Death Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Mothering and Child Death - Essay Example The region has experienced child deaths due to a variety of reasons. For example, Nations and Rebhun (1988) assert that it is caused by failure to obtain medical care for severely ill children. Other reasons such as the bureaucratic and geographic barriers also play a factor. The following paper seeks to examine the situation according to two different points of view. The two different points of view are brought forward by two sets of authors through the writing and research that was undertaken in the region. The paper looks at the key arguments that are made by each set of authors. Secondly, an analysis of the political, economic concerns that factor in each of the author’s reasons for the child death. Finally, the biggest points of contention between the two works as well as any points to which the two sets of authors. More than 1 million Brazilian children under the age of 5 years die each year mostly as a result of parasitic infections interacting with infectious disease and a chronic case of under nutrition. According to Scheper-Hughes (1985), infant and childhood mortality in the region and other third world countries is a problem of political economy. However, he asserts and brings out another point to the table. Scheper-Hughes (1985) states that maternal detachment and an indifference towards the infants and the babies that are judged to be too weak or too vulnerable to survive the unhealthy and bad conditions of the shanty town living. The author tries to show the link between the economic and the maternal deprivation between the maternal and the emotional scarcity. The author also brings forward the social and the economic context shaping the expression of maternal sentiments and the cultural meaning or implications of mother love and child death. The author also describes the experiences of attachment, separation, and loss. The author undertakes a research study with 72 women who have a

SWOT analysis for Gymboree Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

SWOT analysis for Gymboree - Essay Example 1) Size of the Company: Gymboree Corporation runs more than 900 retail stores. This gives the firms an edge over its competitors and allows the company to operate on a large scale enjoying the economies of scale. 2) Multinational Operations: The firm is found to be present in more than one country. This means that the firm does not have all its eggs in one basket and it can weather the storm by offsetting a plummeting demand effect in one country against booming demand in another. 3) Not dependent on one large supplier: The firm’s supplies come from India, China, Indonesia and other countries. This saves the firm from relying heavily on one large supplier and hence suppliers cannot put unnecessary stress on the company. (Daft, 1994) 1) Heavy Dependence on One Major Buying Agent: One buying agent of the company manages 90% of the firm’s inventory purchases. This means that if some goes wrong with this buying agent, the entire business will suffer 2) Computer Dependence: The firm’s operations are highly mechanized. The firm is characterized by extensive use of computer. However, any computer failure can cost the firm dearly as the entire firm’s processes are dependent on computerized instructions. Improvement in Communication and Transportation Facilities: In the last few years, the improvement in the infrastructural facilities has helped the company to receive its supplies on time and instructions to the suppliers can now be made quickly due to ever improving communication facilities. E-Commerce: Improvement in information technology has helped the company to sell online. This is reflected in the company’s financial statements which now show increase in the profits as compare to the last few years. It has helped the company to sell in countries where it is not physically present. (Chrystal and Lipsey, 2003) Economic

Advantage And Disadvantage Of Fixed Budget Accounting Essay

Advantage And Disadvantage Of Fixed Budget Accounting Essay However from a birds- eye view, budget can be defined as a management tools that put the managers in control of a finical health of the organisation. The objective of the budget is to measure of the financial structure of the organisation and budget is a tool that forces management to be accountable in a structured and objective way. How manager manage the budget is key to their value. Budget facilities the planning and resources allocation and help to estimate, itemised, analysis and examined the entire product and service that organisation offers to customer. (Seer, 2000, p.187). Budgeting is a simple process of consolidating budget and adhere them as closely as possible (Maitland,2000). It is a process turns manager attitudes forward looking to the future and planning; managers are able to anticipate and react accordingly to the potential problem before it arises. Budgeting process allows manager to focus on the opportunities instead of figuratively. The budget system provides sustainability to business process within an organisation. It is an utmost important process to the management. In other word by some researchers few business plan to fail but many of those that collapsed failed to plan (Horngren, C. et al., 2000) The aim of budgeting is to give management an idea how well the organisation is projecting the income goals and how well the organisation managing the working capital. The budgeting exercise should able to increase the profit, reduce inappropriate expenses and it also helps to expand the markets (Thomsett, 1988, p.5). To achieve the budgeting aim, the management needs to build a budgeting system (Viscione , J. 1984). A budget system varies from organisation to organisation and it is not unitary concept. The fundamental concept of budget system involves estimating future performance of the organisation, comparing the actual performance to the budget and analysis the deviation of actual result against the budget. The factors that determining the type or style of an organisation depend on the type of organisation, the leadership style, the method of preparation and desired result (Cherrington Cherrington, 1973, p.226) In general budgeting can be categories into two primary categories (Cohen, J. et al., 1994) which are operational budget and financial budget Operational budget covers revenues and expenses which involve day to day core business of the organisation which is normal operation activities. The main elements of the organisation operational budget include sales, production, inventory, materials, labours, overheads and R and D budgets. Financial budget controls the organisation financial aspect of the business. These budgets disclose the influences of the operational budget on the organisation, financial position and potential revenues. Financial budget include cash budget, capital expenditures budget, balance sheet and income statement. There are many available methods of budgeting are available and it is important for the management to decide the correct methods that suits the organisation. Generally, management choices on how to start preparing budget fall into one of three major approaches (Rasmussen, Eichorn, 2000, p.19) which are: Top-Down, Bottom- up and Top-down/bottom up. Please refer to figure 1 for Top-down and Bottom-up approaches. Figure 1: Top-down versus Bottom-up approaches Source: Rasmussen, Eichorn, 2000, p.20-25 Main Body Part A (i) Budget approaches adapted by United Consultancy United Consultancy had presently adapted the approach of static budget while preparing the budgeting. Static Budget is also known as fixed budget. Accordingly to Chartered Institute of Management Accountants of England, a fixed budget is a budget outline to remain unchanged irrespective of level of actual activities attained. A static budget will reflect the expected result or revenues of a budgeting year (Hansen and Mowen, 2011) of a responsibility centre for one level of activities. Normally fixed budget will be prepared in advance before the financial year as the cost classified as fixed and it will not very in direct proportion of the level of activities. Fixed budget approaches are widely adapted by service industry (Reeve and Warren, 2007) and partly by some administrative functions of manufacturing companies such as purchasing, engineering and accounting. Fixed budget is used as an effective tool of cost. If, the level of activities attained are varies from the budgeted activi ties then fixed budget become ineffective. Comparatively, fixed budget is only suitable for fixed expenses. A fixed budget is appropriate under static condition. Advantage and disadvantage of Fixed Budget Small business and service industries needs an overall budget to survive Fixed budget is most widely used by service and small industries as it help to track on control the spending. At the same time fixed budget can cause more problems rather than giving a solution. A fixed budget will capitalised the calculation fixed expenses and help to forecast the bills to be paid by the business. For the variable expenses, fixed budget provides maximise spending limits and it helps to control the finances. The advantage of fixed budget is to help the business to prioritise the expenses. Fixed budget clearly distinction between the businesses needs and wants by forcing the business to remain consistent, it will also ensure that the bills are paid on time. The disadvantage of fixed budget as its operates to one level of activity- the planned activity and it does not account for the business unpredictable activity. The actual always will be captured by a level of activity which is significantly difference from the planned activity. For example, to compare the actual production cost increased at production levels of 1000 units against a standard based on planned activity of 500 units could be misleading. Management will mislead thinking into that the production costs are out of control. An increase in production cost is avoidable as volume increases and it does not means that there is problem on increase cost occurred. Hiring Consultant for Future budgeting for United Consultancy A consultant is who has a position to have a certain level of influences over an individual, a group or an organisation but who has no absolute power to make or to adapt changes into the organisation. It is the employee of the organisation has the power to decide whether to accept and implement the changes into the organisation. The consultant brings specialised skills, knowledge, expertises or accessing certain information into the organisation. Scott Hascall (2002) had analysed the advantage and disadvantages of consultants and United Consultancy need to consider before hiring consultants for involving in preparation of future budgets. Advantage of consultants The consultants are import and hired to fill competency gap in the organisation. According to Drucker (1979) suggested management consultant is an extraordinary and indeed a unique phenomenon as consultancy has the management skills, techniques, knowledge are best learned through exposures to and experiences with many industries as the typical executives lack of this kind of exposure. As Drucker notes, The executive works with same organisation or most with very few. Executives lack exposure and cannot gain it nor can be stimulate it. Consultant will able to transform the organisation and gain the exposure at the same time will add significant value by reducing the problem resolution cycle time (Hagedorn, 1982). United Consultancy will be hiring consultant for preparation for future budget as it will bring new Idea, proficiency and impartiality objective (Gattiker and Larwood, 1985). Ifinedo (2011) had surveyed the impacting factor of consultants such as management, support, business, vision and external expertise. The result was found that all these factors influences the business system but the effect of external quality expertise was more important compared to the other factors Disadvantage of consultants An organisation hiring a consultant to bring as it will bring the required expertise, knowledge and experience to the organisation. Accordingly to Kelly (1979) hiring external consultant will be expensive as the payment will be based on their specialised skill in the respective field compare to internal consultant. An external consultant will not available at the right time and not easily accessible to the organisation as the internal executives. At the same time, and they are lack knowledge of organisation culture and working environment. Nonetheless consultants have the great level influences the senior management. A research by Norbck and kerblomMaster (2003) had highlighted that engagement of uncommitted management and inexperienced executives would lead to give an opportunity to consultants to take advantage of the situation and act to their benefit and attaining their own goals. There the experiences and capabilities of management consultants are critical for successful on management of consultants. One of most important factor to take into account when hiring consultants was mentioned by Luo and Liberatore (2009) which examined consultants objective and goals. The organisation main objective is to improve the performances while the consultants other goals such as knowledge acquisition and business growth. To overcome the situation, the organisation must well coordinate with consultants to achieve the desired goals. Part A (ii) United consultancy using Activity- based costing (ABC) for the allocation cost based fixed and varioable expenses. An effective planning of fixed and variable cost as follows: Planning to determine the variable overhead activates that add value for customers using the product and service Effectively planning to use the cost drivers in different level of activities. At the start of the fiscal year, a substantial percentage of fixed overhead are predetermined compare to variable. When the United Consultancy budget the fixed overhead cost, they should select the appropriate level of activity that will benefit the United Consultancy over long terms. This is a strategic decision. The key differences are how fixed costs are fixed to level activity and variable costs are allocated to level of activity. Actual Costing Standard Costing Fixed Cost Actual Prices Actual inputs are used Standard Prices Standard inputs allowed for actual output Variable Cost Actual indirect rate Actual inputs used Standard variable cost allocation rate. Standard quality of cost allocation base allowed for actual output. Activity- based costing has involves the following stage: Identify the level of activity that resources and cost to be associate. Identify the cost drivers linked level of activity. A cost driver is any factor that cause on drivers and activity cost. Calculate a cost rate per cost driver. Each activity should multiple cost drivers Assign cost to products by multiplying the cost driver rate by volume of cost driver units consumed by the products. Indentify level of activity that resource is most engaging and challenging which based on activity based costing. A cost advantage rules that companies identify most important activity. Non Value added activities will be identified and these can be eliminated to improve the efficiency and profitability. Majority of the cost drivers are related either to the level of activity or the complexity of the production or marketing process.

The Birmingham Bombings: Views of Martin Luther King and Jessie Jackso

The Birmingham Bombings: Views of Martin Luther King and Jessie Jackson The bombings and marches in Birmingham Alabama were major concerns for all civil rights leaders. During the 50’s and 60’s, civil rights leaders fought against injustice in different ways. Some civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King and Jessie Jackson fought against injustice with a pen. In 1963 Martin Luther King wrote a letter titled, â€Å"Letter From a Birmingham Jail†, and Jessie Jackson wrote, â€Å"Jets of Water Blast Civil Rights Demonstrators, Birmingham, 1963.† Martin Luther King and Jessie Jackson are two civil rights leaders of different generations, but with similar views concerning the Birmingham bombings. There is a noticeable age difference between Jackson and King, which results in two different perspectives. In Jessie Jackson’s article he wrote about past experiences, because his article was written years after the Birmingham events. Jackson was just a college student at the time of the Birmingham bombings. He only had himself to worry about, but he chose to make the nation...